The Sweet History of the Ice Cream Soda

The invention of the ice cream soda marks a delightful chapter in the history of American beverages. This refreshing treat, combining the creamy richness of ice cream with the fizzy excitement of soda, emerged in the late 19th century. While the exact origins remain debated, one of the most popular accounts credits Robert M. Green, a Philadelphia soda fountain operator, with its creation in 1874.

According to the story, Green was serving a traditional cream soda made with sweet cream, syrup, and carbonated water at the Franklin Institute’s semi-centennial celebration. When he unexpectedly ran out of cream, he used vanilla ice cream as a substitute. The result was an innovative drink that quickly gained popularity among attendees. Green’s accidental creation, often described as serendipitous, soon became a hit, inspiring soda fountains nationwide to adopt and experiment with the concept.

Other accounts suggest that similar innovations were occurring simultaneously across the country. Soda fountain operators, motivated by competition and the desire to attract more customers, were independently experimenting with combinations of ice cream and soda. Regardless of its precise origins, the ice cream soda solidified its place as an iconic American beverage by the late 19th century.

The popularity of the ice cream soda led to the development of various flavors and combinations. Among these, the root beer float stands out as a quintessential variant. Often attributed to Frank J. Wisner of Colorado in 1893, the root beer float—also known as a "black cow"—pairs root beer with a scoop of vanilla ice cream. This simple yet ingenious concoction quickly became a favorite, embodying the whimsical creativity of American soda fountains.

The cultural impact of the ice cream soda extended beyond its taste. During the early 20th century, soda fountains became community hubs, where people of all ages gathered to socialize over a glass of this frothy delight. These establishments played a significant role in shaping the social fabric of the era, fostering connections and moments of joy.

Today, the ice cream soda remains a nostalgic treat, evoking memories of a simpler time. Whether enjoyed as a root beer float or in other creative variations, it continues to delight taste buds and offer a refreshing escape, blending history and flavor in every bubbly sip.
The Sweet History of the Ice Cream Soda

Revolutionizing Retail: The Invention and Legacy of the Barcode

Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver revolutionized the retail and logistics industries with their groundbreaking invention of the barcode. The concept emerged in 1948 when Silver, then a graduate student, overheard a supermarket executive seeking a method to automatically read product information at checkout. Intrigued, Silver shared the idea with his friend Joseph Woodland, whose background in mechanical engineering fueled their innovative journey.

Woodland found inspiration in Morse code, the system of dots and dashes used for communication. He envisioned that these elements could be extended into lines of varying thickness to encode information. In a moment of clarity, while sketching ideas on the sands of Miami Beach, Woodland conceptualized the first barcode—a design that could hold data and be scanned electronically. Initially, the pair developed a circular barcode, or "bullseye" pattern, which they believed would be easier to scan from any orientation.

In 1952, Woodland and Silver secured a patent for their "Classifying Apparatus and Method." However, their invention was ahead of its time. The technology needed for practical implementation, such as efficient scanners and computing power, did not exist. This gap delayed widespread adoption until the 1970s, when advancements in laser technology and the development of the Universal Product Code (UPC) made the system viable. IBM, where Woodland later worked, played a pivotal role in refining and standardizing the barcode for commercial use.

The breakthrough moment came in 1974 at a Marsh supermarket in Troy, Ohio. A pack of Wrigley’s chewing gum became the first product scanned using a barcode, marking the dawn of a new era in retail. This milestone showcased the barcode’s potential to streamline inventory management, reduce human error, and expedite transactions.

Today, barcodes are ubiquitous across industries, from healthcare and manufacturing to logistics and beyond. Their influence extends to technologies like QR codes and RFID systems, which further enhance data capture and operational efficiency. Woodland and Silver’s invention not only revolutionized retail but also laid the groundwork for the modern automated identification and data capture (AIDC) industry. As the global economy grows increasingly dependent on seamless data integration, their legacy continues to drive innovation and efficiency in the digital age.
Revolutionizing Retail: The Invention and Legacy of the Barcode

LEDs: A Century of Innovation in Electronics and Lighting

The invention of the light-emitting diode (LED) represents a pivotal advancement in the history of electronics, blending breakthroughs in materials science, physics, and engineering. The phenomenon behind LEDs, known as electroluminescence, was first identified in 1907 by British scientist H.J. Round, who observed that certain materials emitted light under an electric current. Although a landmark discovery, it took several decades and advances in semiconductor research for practical LEDs to emerge.

In 1962, Nick Holonyak Jr., an American engineer at General Electric, developed the first visible-spectrum LED, producing red light. This innovation marked a significant step forward, as Holonyak’s LED was not only functional but also efficient and practical for applications. Often called the "father of the LED," Holonyak opened doors to further color variations, leading to the development of green and yellow LEDs by the late 1960s. These early LEDs found immediate use in indicators and digital displays, marking the beginning of LED applications in consumer electronics.

The 1970s and 1980s brought further breakthroughs as researchers improved LED efficiency, brightness, and reliability. Yet, the most transformative development came in the early 1990s when scientists Shuji Nakamura, Isamu Akasaki, and Hiroshi Amano successfully created blue LEDs. This achievement was essential, as the combination of blue LEDs with yellow phosphor enabled the production of white light, making LEDs suitable for general lighting. For this milestone, the three researchers were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014, as their work paved the way for LEDs to replace traditional incandescent and fluorescent lighting.

Today, LEDs are integral to various fields, from household and industrial lighting to electronic displays, automotive lighting, and even medical devices. Their low energy consumption, long lifespan, and minimal heat output make them environmentally friendly and cost-effective. LEDs have driven energy savings globally, with studies suggesting that LEDs could reduce electricity demand for lighting by nearly 50% by 2030. Ongoing advancements, such as organic LEDs (OLEDs) for flexible screens and micro-LEDs for high-resolution displays, continue to expand LED applications, highlighting the technology’s versatility and resilience in an energy-conscious world.

LEDs stand as a testament to the power of scientific curiosity and technological progress, embodying over a century of innovation that continues to shape modern life.
LEDs: A Century of Innovation in Electronics and Lighting

The Invention of the Ice Cream Cone: A Sweet Revolution

Before the invention of the ice cream cone, enjoying ice cream was a bit more cumbersome. People typically ate their ice cream out of dishes or paper wrappers, which were not only less convenient but also created more waste. Dishes had to be washed and reused, which limited portability, and paper wrappers were messy and often led to litter. This method of serving ice cream made it less accessible to people on the go, and vendors needed to provide additional resources such as spoons and napkins, further adding to the inconvenience.

This all changed dramatically at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair, a pivotal moment in the history of ice cream. The fair was a hotspot for food innovation, and it was here that a stroke of genius forever altered the ice cream experience. During the event, an ice cream vendor found himself in a predicament when he ran out of dishes to serve his ice cream. At such a crowded event, this could have spelled disaster for his business. With no means to serve the ice cream, he risked losing both sales and customers.

Fortunately, Ernest A. Hamwi, a neighboring vendor selling crisp, waffle-like pastries called zalabis, stepped in with a clever solution. Demonstrating quick thinking and ingenuity, Hamwi rolled one of his zalabis into a cone shape, creating the first-ever edible ice cream container. The waffle pastry cooled quickly, forming a sturdy vessel capable of holding a scoop of ice cream. This was not only a practical fix for the vendor's dilemma, but it also delighted customers. They could now enjoy their ice cream without needing a dish or a spoon—and they got to eat the container too, adding an extra treat.

This innovation quickly caught on, revolutionizing the way ice cream was served and enjoyed. The portability and novelty of the ice cream cone made it an instant hit, and its popularity spread rapidly. The ice cream cone became an iconic treat, beloved by people around the world, and it remains a staple of dessert culture to this day.
The Invention of the Ice Cream Cone: A Sweet Revolution

Thousand Island Dressing: A Historical Culinary Delight

Thousand Island Dressing, a staple in American cuisine, owes its name and origins to the picturesque Thousand Islands region between New York and Canada. This archipelago along the St. Lawrence River became a fashionable summer retreat for America's elite at the turn of the 20th century, providing the perfect backdrop for the dressing's creation.

The widely accepted story of Thousand Island Dressing’s origin begins with Sophie Lalonde, the wife of a fishing guide in the early 1900s. Sophie often prepared a unique condiment for her husband's shore dinners, which quickly gained popularity among the fishing community. One notable fan was actress May Irwin, who enjoyed the dressing during her visits to the Thousand Islands. Impressed by its flavor, Irwin requested the recipe from Sophie and passed it on to George Boldt, a fellow summer visitor and the owner of New York’s prestigious Waldorf Astoria Hotel.

Recognizing the potential of this delicious dressing, Boldt instructed his renowned maître d', Oscar of the Waldorf, to add it to the hotel’s menu. This move significantly boosted the dressing’s popularity, making it a staple in fine dining establishments across the country.

In 1972, a piece of culinary history was uncovered when Sophie Lalonde’s original recipe was found in a safe at The Thousand Islands Inn, a restaurant owned by fisherman Allen Benas. Benas began bottling and selling the dressing, ensuring that Sophie’s creation continued to delight taste buds far and wide.

An alternative version of the dressing's origin ties back to George Boldt himself and his grand summer residence, Boldt Castle. As legend has it, Boldt and his wife Louise were enjoying a day out on their steam-powered yacht when they realized they had forgotten the dressing for their salad. The resourceful onboard chef whipped up a new dressing using available ingredients, and thus, another tale of the Thousand Island Dressing was born.

Both stories, whether featuring Sophie Lalonde's shore dinners or Boldt’s impromptu yacht lunch, emphasize the creativity and spontaneity that characterize the dressing’s inception. Today, Thousand Island Dressing remains a beloved condiment, celebrated not only for its taste but also for the rich and colorful history that accompanies every bite.
Thousand Island Dressing: A Historical Culinary Delight

The Cool History of Popsicles: From Ancient Rome to Modern Treats

Shaved ice and ice cream have a rich history spanning nearly a millennium. The origins can be traced back to ancient Rome, where slaves were sent to mountains to retrieve blocks of ice, which were then crushed and served with fruit and spice syrups. Fast forward to 1872, two businessmen known as "Ross and Robbins" were selling frozen fruit on a stick, calling it the "Hokey Pokey," a precursor to modern frozen treats.

The story of the Popsicle is particularly captivating, almost worthy of a Hollywood screenplay. This beloved summer treat was invented by an 11-year-old named Francis Epperson from Oakland. In 1905, Epperson mixed sugary soda powder into water, leaving the concoction with a wooden stirrer on his porch overnight. The unusually cold temperatures that night caused the mixture to freeze, and the next morning, Epperson discovered what would become a revolutionary treat. He began licking the frozen mixture off the wooden stirrer, realizing he had created something special.

Epperson soon started selling this frozen delight to his neighbors, naming it the “Epsicle”—a fusion of his name and "icicle." His creation gained popularity, and in 1922, he introduced it at a firefighter's ball where it was a hit. By 1923, Epperson expanded his sales to Neptune Beach, an amusement park near his home in San Francisco. Neptune Beach, often compared to Coney Island, was a bustling spot featuring roller coasters, baseball, and an Olympic-sized swimming pool, providing the perfect venue for his frozen treat.

Recognizing the potential of his invention, Epperson patented the Popsicle in 1924. His children played a crucial role in renaming it; they affectionately called it “Pop’s ‘Sicle,” which eventually became the iconic Popsicle. However, in 1925, Epperson sold the rights to the Joe Lowe Company, a decision he later regretted, lamenting, “I haven’t been the same since.”

The Popsicle became an affordable treat during the Great Depression, sold for $0.05 each, and could even be shared by two people. The brand continued to grow, and in 1989, Epperson’s rival Good Humor, by then a subsidiary of Unilever, acquired Popsicle. This acquisition made the Popsicle a British-Dutch owned creation, a far cry from its humble Oakland beginnings.

Today, Popsicles remain a quintessential summer treat, enjoyed by people of all ages. The journey from a serendipitous frozen drink to a globally recognized brand is a testament to innovation, perseverance, and the simple joys of a cold, refreshing treat on a hot day.
The Cool History of Popsicles: From Ancient Rome to Modern Treats

John Matthews: The Pioneer of the American Soda Fountain

John Matthews (1808–1870) began his journey into the world of soda water as an apprentice in the shop of the renowned inventor Joseph Bramah. Under Bramah's tutelage, Matthews mastered the intricacies of machinery and, crucially, the production of carbonic acid gas, the vital component for creating soda water. This early education set the stage for his pioneering contributions to the soda fountain industry.

In pursuit of greater opportunities, the English-born Matthews ventured across the Atlantic to the United States, arriving in New York City in 1832. At the time, New York was at the forefront of soda fountain development, a nascent industry that Matthews was eager to revolutionize. The city, known for its abundant taverns, inns, and pubs that predominantly served alcoholic beverages, was an ideal setting for Matthews to introduce a novel alternative: soda water.

Matthews quickly established a small-scale operation where he began manufacturing carbonating machinery and selling soda water to local retailers and drug stores. His enterprise didn't stop at producing soda water; he also sold full-sized soda fountains, expanding the reach and popularity of this refreshing beverage. Matthews' innovation lay in his reliable method for creating carbonated water, a process that leveraged the ample supply of marble chips from New York's many construction projects. By mixing sulphuric acid with these marble chips, he generated carbonic acid gas, an efficient and cost-effective technique that cemented his status as a soda water pioneer.

The success of Matthews' soda fountains didn't go unnoticed. By the end of the 19th century, several formidable competitors emerged in the soda fountain market, including John Lippincott of Philadelphia, A.D. Puffer of Boston, and James W. Tufts of Somerville, Massachusetts. Each brought their unique innovations and business acumen to the industry, challenging Matthews' dominance.

In a strategic move to consolidate their market positions, these leading figures in the soda fountain industry merged in 1891. John Matthews of New York, A.D. Puffer and Sons of Boston, Charles Lippincott of Philadelphia, and James W. Tufts' Arctic Soda Fountain Company combined to form the American Soda Fountain Company, with Tufts serving as president. This merger marked the culmination of Matthews' legacy, solidifying his impact on the soda fountain industry and ensuring the continued evolution and popularity of soda water.

Today, the soda fountain remains a beloved fixture in American culture, a testament to John Matthews' ingenuity and entrepreneurial spirit. His journey from Bramah's apprentice to a pivotal figure in the soda fountain industry illustrates the profound impact of innovation and perseverance in shaping new markets and consumer experiences.
John Matthews: The Pioneer of the American Soda Fountain

The Evolution of Cheese Puffs: From Animal Feed to Snack Phenomenon

Cheese puffs, a beloved snack synonymous with cheesy goodness and satisfying crunch, have a surprising origin story deeply rooted in American innovation and culinary ingenuity.

In the 1930s, amidst the agricultural heartland of Wisconsin, the Flakall Company was pioneering a novel approach to animal feed production. Specializing in processing grain into small, digestible pieces, the company's method involved a unique flaking machine designed to enhance the feed's nutritional value.

It was during this era that Edward Wilson, a keen-eyed employee of Flakall, made a serendipitous observation. While watching cornmeal being processed through the flaking machine, Wilson noticed how the combination of moisture and heat transformed the cornmeal into puffy, ribbon-like formations upon exiting the machine. This accidental discovery would prove to be the spark of a culinary revolution.

Taking some of these puffy ribbons home, Wilson experimented with adding oil and flavorings. The result? A delectable and addictive snack we now know as cheese curls.

In 1939, Wilson applied for a patent for his creation, which was subsequently commercialized in 1946 under the name "Korn Kurls" by the Adams Corporation—an entity formed by Flakall's founder and his sons. The Adams Corporation, later acquired by Beatrice Foods, propelled the cheese puff into mainstream popularity.

Interestingly, another variant of the cheese puff emerged around the same time in the vibrant city of New Orleans. The Elmer Candy Corporation, renowned for its confectionery delights, stumbled upon their own cheesy innovation, creating a version they aptly named "CheeWees." This distinctive name was selected through a contest held in New Orleans, reflecting the regional charm and appeal of the snack.

Despite the trademark for "CheeWees" being lost due to corporate transitions, the Elmer family's legacy endured. Elmer's Fine Foods continued to produce the iconic snack, ultimately reclaiming the trademark in 1993, reaffirming the enduring connection between this beloved treat and its New Orleans roots.

Today, cheese puffs stand as a testament to the spirit of American creativity, transforming from humble beginnings as animal feed into a snack enjoyed by millions worldwide. Whether it's the nostalgic crunch of Korn Kurls or the spirited heritage of CheeWees, the history of cheese puffs remains a delightful tale of culinary evolution and entrepreneurial tenacity.
The Evolution of Cheese Puffs: From Animal Feed to Snack Phenomenon

The Evolution of Cobb Salad: A Culinary Classic

Cobb salad stands as a testament to culinary innovation, tracing its roots back to the bustling kitchen of the Brown Derby Restaurant in Hollywood. Unlike traditional salads relegated to the sidelines, the Cobb salad emerged as a robust main dish, revolutionizing American dining habits.

In 1937, the late-night hunger pangs of Robert Howard Cobb, the restaurant's owner, sparked a culinary revelation. Amidst the clatter of dishes, Cobb concocted a medley of ingredients from the refrigerator's remnants: crisp lettuce, creamy avocado, succulent chicken breast, tangy tomatoes, and the rich aroma of bacon. Tossed together with a flourish and doused with a "special French dressing," the creation was a symphony of flavors.

The legend goes that Cobb's impromptu creation caught the eye of Sid Grauman, the famed owner of Grauman's Chinese Theatre. Impressed by the gastronomic delight, Grauman requested the "Cobb salad" be added to the restaurant's menu, immortalizing the dish's name.

However, debates persist regarding the true architect of the Cobb salad. While Cobb is often credited with its invention, some assert that executive chef Robert Kreis crafted the salad as early as 1929, though it adopted Cobb's name due to his ownership of the restaurant.

Over the years, the salad has undergone subtle transformations, particularly in its dressing. Originally dressed in a "special French dressing" comprising red wine vinegar, olive oil, lemon juice, Worcestershire sauce, mustard, and garlic, modern interpretations often feature the creamy richness of blue cheese or the tangy kick of ranch dressing.

Moreover, the Cobb salad marked a pivotal shift in American dining culture, pioneering the concept of a "main course" salad. Prior to its inception, salads were relegated to mere side dishes, consisting of greens adorned with a simple dressing of vinegar and oil. Cobb salad's hearty combination of protein, vegetables, and dressing elevated it to a culinary icon, setting a precedent for subsequent main course salads.

In essence, the history of Cobb salad encapsulates more than just the creation of a dish; it represents a culinary journey marked by innovation, creativity, and the enduring legacy of one man's late-night cravings.
The Evolution of Cobb Salad: A Culinary Classic

The invention of Gillette safety razor

In 1903, Gillette introduced the world’s first system razor—a two-piece safety razor with a thin, strong, sharp double-edge blade attached to a reusable handle. When the Gillette system razor hit the market, it didn’t take long for blade sales to reach into the millions

King Camp Gillette was born January 5, 1855 in Fond Du Lac, Wisconsin. The Gillette family moved to Chicago in 1859. Then in 1871, after the Great Fire destroyed their hardware supply business, they moved to New York City.

In 1891 he took the position of traveling salesman for the Baltimore Seal Company, who were manufacturing a seal for stoppering bottles.

On the road, Gillette used to shave every morning with a Star Safety Razor, which is a heavy, wedge-shaped blade fitted perpendicularly into its handle.

Safety razors had been developed in the mid-19th century, but still used a forged blade. In the 1870s, the Kampfe Brothers introduced a type of razor along these lines. One morning in 1895, Gillette, now living in Boston, had a revelation. If he could put a sharp edge on a small square of sheet steel, then he could market a safety razor blade that could be thrown away and readily replaced when it grew dull. It was an entirely new razor and blade that flashed in his mind—a razor with a safe, inexpensive, and disposable blade.

Gillette visited metallurgists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), who assured him his idea was impossible. It took Gillette six years to find an engineer, William Emery Nickerson (an MIT-trained inventor), to produce the thin, sharpened steel blades he envisioned. William Emery Nickerson changed the original model, improving the handle and frame so that it could better support the thin steel blade. Nickerson designed the machinery to mass-produce the blades, and he received patents for hardening and sharpening the blades.

In 1901 the American Safety Razor Company, soon renamed the Gillette Safety Razor Company, was formed. Sales and production, which began slowly in 1902 grew rapidly. By the end of 1905. annual production had grown in 250.000 razor sets and100.000 dozen-count blade packages.

For the first time, razor blades were sold in multiple packages, with the razor handle being a one-time purchase.
The invention of Gillette safety razor

Electric power by William Stanley

Born in Brooklyn, New York, William Stanley attended private schools before enrolling at Yale University. He began to study law at age 21 but less than a semester later left school to look for a job in the emerging field of electricity. After getting his feet wet as an electrician, he worked as an assistant to inventor Hiram Maxim, whose electrical innovations made him a rival of Thomas Edison.

Stanley was inspired by Charles F. Brush's work on batteries which involved study of electromotive force. In 1883, Stanley developed AC power circuit designs in his notebooks but didn't yet have a chance to build prototypes.

Stanley worked for George Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, Pa, during the years 1884 and 1885. He

had gained a reputation for his work on incandescent lamps. In 1885, Stanley built the first practical alternating current transformer based on Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs' prototype of 1881.

Health problems however implied that he leaves Pittsburgh, he moved to Great Barrington, a place where he had spent a good part of his childhood. In those peaceful surroundings, he was able to develop some ideas he had suggested two years earlier to his employer, George Westinghouse (who helped finance Stanley’s lab) for a new type of transformer.

There he set up a small laboratory and by early spring of 1886 had an alternator installed in an abandoned mill on the edge of the town.

On 20 March 1886 Stanley provided alternating current electrification to offices and stores on Main Street in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.

He demonstrated the first practical system for providing electric illumination with the use of alternating current, and transformers to adjust the voltage levels of the distribution system.

In 1890, Stanley ventured out on his own to form the Stanley Electric Manufacturing Company. Working with John J. Kelley and Cummings Chesney, he developed an advanced AC transmission system known as the “SKC system.”
Electric power by William Stanley

Adolph Levitt and the first doughnut machine

When World War I ended in 1918, many soldiers returned home to the United States— bringing their hunger for donuts. Adolph Levitt, an immigrant from Russia, spotted a business opportunity. He became the first to produce machine made donuts.

Adolph Levitt emigrated from Russian with his family to America in 1892. His father died within a year, forcing Adolph to leave school at the age of 10.

As a teenager, he began a mercantile business with his brother, John. They opened several stores using their plan to put merchandise in the windows to attract customers. The stored prospered for a while but, it didn’t last.

At 37, Adolph moved to New York and bought into a bakery chain. He soon realized that there was a strong consumer demand for doughnuts, sparked by soldiers returning from WWI clamoured for the donuts they eaten in France.

Adolph heard about this and he began frying up doughnuts. He started out cooking the doughnuts in small batches in a kettle at the window. As he turned each doughnut over with a stick, people would stop to watch.

People lined up to watch the donuts fry and to purchase them fresh. Soon, he was unable to keep up with the customers' demands. He needed a machine to make the process more efficient.

Levitt had an idea for a donut machine that could fry and automatically turn donuts while pushing the fumes to the roof with a fan. The first machine didn’t work, but they tried again, and again. Finally, in 1920, the twelfth model was successful. With a such machine, he would be able to produce in a greater numbers and meet the demand.

The total cost was $15,000. Levitt called his machine The Wonderful Almost Human Automatic Donut Machine.

He chose Mayflower Donuts for his brand name. He put the machine in the bakery window and produced large quantities of donuts. A circle of dough, shaped like a ring dropped from the hopper and into vat of boiling oil and then, once cooked, ascended a moving ramp before falling into a basket.

People stood watching the dough go in and donuts come out, Bakers came from across the country, they immediately appreciated its benefits, since even this first model could turn out 1,000 identical donuts in an hour.

In 1950, Vernon Rudolph invented the Krispy Automatic Ring King Junior Doughnut machine. Designed for cake doughnut production and taking up only seven square feet, the Ring King Junior was a compact machine that handled the whole process: mixing the ingredients, creating the dough, moulding it into the ring shape, deep-frying, cooling and packing the cooked doughnuts into boxes.

Donut machines grew to be more refined and many other companies produced their own version of Levitt’s machine.

Adolph Levitt and the first doughnut machine

History of invention of Tomahawk Cruise Missile

The first practical efforts on record began when Peter C . Hewitt, inventor of the mercury vapor lamp, approached Elmer A. Sperry of Sperry Gyroscope Company in April 1915 with the idea of a "flying bomb." Together they developed and tested an automatic control system on both a Curtiss flying boat and a twin-engine aircraft.

The strategic cruise missile was born when interest was renewed in air and submarine launched cruise missile following the signing of the first SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty). Research and development were broadened to include all sea launched cruise missiles, and the program was formally started on 2 June 1972.

For the Navy, General Dynamics had the most successful test missile program. On 1 February 1977, it was awarded the first full-scale naval production contract. The General Dynamics missile was named Tomahawk. It was initially designed as a medium- to long-range, low-altitude missile that could be launched from a surface platform. Since then, it has been upgraded several times with guidance systems for precision navigation.

The Block II TLAM-A (Tomahawk Land Attack Missile -A) missile achieved initial operating capability in 1984. The first operational use of Tomahawk in January 1991 made significant contributions to the neutralization and destruction of Iraqi air defense, command and control, and weapons storage facilities and therefore played a significant role in the successful outcome of Operation Desert Storm.

In 1992–1994, McDonnell Douglas Corporation was the sole supplier of Tomahawk Missiles and produced Block II and Block III Tomahawk missiles and remanufactured many Tomahawks to Block III specifications.

In 1994, Hughes outbid McDonnell Douglas Aerospace to become the sole supplier of Tomahawk missiles. It is now manufactured by Raytheon. In 2016, the U.S. Department of Defense purchased 149 Tomahawk Block IV missiles for $202.3 million.
History of invention of Tomahawk Cruise Missile

The first digital camera

In 1973, Steven Sasson, a young engineer, went to work for Eastman Kodak. Two years later he invented digital photography and made the first digital camera. Sasson’s work on the first digital camera was more of an experiment than a product development effort and many technical hurdles remained before it could be marketed.

After arriving at Kodak, Mr. Sasson was given a seemingly unimportant task — to see whether there was any practical use for a charged coupled device (C.C.D.). His boss suggested that he try using the 100-by-100-pixel CCD to digitize an image.

Charge-coupled devices, the very first digital imaging sensors, were still a relatively new technology at the time. CCD had only been invented six years earlier, in 1969, by George Smith and Willard Boyle of Bell Labs. Early CCDs yielded low resolution still images, but were put to use in video cameras in 1970.

Sasson quickly ordered a couple of them and set out to evaluate the devices, which consisted of a sensor that took an incoming two-dimensional light pattern and converted it into an electrical signal. Mr. Sasson wanted to capture an image with it, but the C.C.D. couldn’t hold it because the electrical pulses quickly dissipated.

After working on his camera on and off for a year, Sasson decided on 12 December 1975 that he was ready to take his first picture. Lab technician Joy Marshall agreed to pose. The photo took about 23 seconds to record onto the audio tape.

To store the image, he decided to use what was at that time a relatively new process — digitalization — turning the electronic pulses into numbers. But that solution led to another challenge — storing it on RAM memory, then getting it onto digital magnetic tape.

The final result was a Rube Goldberg device with a lens scavenged from a used Super-8 movie camera; a portable digital cassette recorder; 16 nickel cadmium batteries; an analog/digital converter; and several dozen circuits — all wired together on half a dozen circuit boards.

The camera weighed eight pounds and took 23 seconds to make a photograph. It recorded 10,000-pixel (or 0.01 megapixel) black and white images on a cassette tape that could hold thirty pictures, which could then be played back as an image from the data stored on the tape.

Sasson and his supervisor, Garreth Lloyd, received U.S. Patent No. 4,131,919 for an electronic still camera in 1978.

Modern digital cameras evolved from a machine that was heavy, slow, and required an array of additional equipment to have an image displayed.
The first digital camera

Henry Perky invents Shredded Wheat 1892

Henry Drushel Perky was born in Holmes County, OH on December 7, 1843. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in Nebraska, and later served in the Nebraska State Senate in the 1870’s.

Because of declining health, Perky and his wife left Nebraska for Colorado about 1880, where he became an attorney for the Union Pacific Railroad.

Perky's grand plans for the manufacture of steel railway cars were never realized.

Sometime in the early 1890’s, at a Nebraska hotel, Perky— who suffered from heartburn— had encountered a man similarly afflicted, who was eating boiled wheat with cream. Inspired by his observation and in 1892 he had taken his idea of a product made of boiled wheat to Watertown, NY, where his friend William H. Ford, a machinist by trade, helped Perky build the device that he had conceived.

He and his friend then developed a method of processing wheat into strips that were formed into pillow-like biscuits. Perky’s original intention was to sell these shredding machines for home use, not the biscuits made by them.

In Denver, Perky founded the Cereal Machine Company and began distributing the shredded-wheat biscuits from a horse-drawn wagon in an attempt to popularize the idea.

Perky first sold his shredded wheat cereal to vegetarian restaurants in 1892, distributing it from a factory in Niagara Falls, New York. A health-oriented publication, The Chicago Vegetarian, recommended the use of shredded wheat biscuits as soup croutons.

Perky soon realized that the actual cereal biscuits were more popular than the machines and opened his first bakery in Boston and then in Worcester, MA in 1895, retaining the name of the Cereal Machine Company, and adding the name of the Shredded Wheat Company.

Perky was a pioneer of the “cookless breakfast food”, and it was he who first mass-produced and nationally distributed ready-to-eat cereal. By 1898, Shredded Wheat was being sold all over North and South America and Europe.

After Henry Perky died in 1908 and the patent on his Shredded Wheat biscuit expired in 1912, John Harvey Kellogg saw that as an opportunity for Kellogg’s to sell its own version of the product. Kellogg obtained a patent on the biscuit in 1915, and Kellogg’s Shredded Wheat was born.

In 1928, the Perky’s company was sold to The National Biscuit Company and the product name changed to Nabisco Shredded Wheat. The name of the plant was changed to Nabisco Foods in 1956 to reflect the variety of foods that were being produced at that time.

Interestingly, Perky’s son Scott Henry Perky invented a shredded wheat product called Muffets in 1920, which was marketed by his company Toasticks. Muffets were later merchandised by the Quaker Oats Company, billed as “the round shredded wheat”.
Henry Perky invents Shredded Wheat in 1892

Invention air brake by George Westinghouse

In the early 1870s, after more than forty years of stopping trains with hand brakes, American railroads equipped their passenger trains with revolutionary new Westinghouse.

In 1866, Westinghouse was aboard a train that had to come to a sudden halt to avoid colliding with a wrecked train. To stop the train, brakemen manually applied brakes to each individual car based on a signal from the engineer.

Early railcar brakes were activated manually. Rail companies hired brakemen and assigned them to turn manual wheels to actuate railcar brakes. Signaling standards were devised, typically consisting of using the whistle to signal the brakemen.

Perceiving that increased safety on the new system of transportation was necessary for further development, Westinghouse invented and patented a compressed-air brake system in April 1869 to replace the standard manual braking system, which was often faulty.

George's invention worked with compressed air which released brakes off the wheels, if air pressure was lowered, or accidentally leaked, the brakes would activate. This system is the root of modern rail braking systems and related to brakes for large trucks. That July 1869 he founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company.

In 1873, Westinghouse refined his braking system, developing an automatic braking system in which each piece of railroad rolling stock was equipped with an air reservoir and a triple valve, also known as a control valve.

The new braking system made it possible for trains to travel safely at much higher speeds. By 1877 most American railroads had outfitted their passenger trains with airbrakes, and one railroads editor declared that “no road claims to be first class that does not employ (them).”
Invention air brake by Westinghouse

Electric power by Edison

Thomas Edison was a brilliant inventor despite the fact that he had little formal training and lived in New Jersey.

Edison’s first major invention in 1877, was the phonograph. He regarded it as a toy, and designed toys that used the device, including talking dolls and children's pianos. He improved it so that it could record and play music. Phonograph could be found in thousands of American homes, where it basically sat until 1923 when the record was invented.

In 1879, Thomas Edison focused on inventing a practical light bulb, one that would last a long time before burning out. The problem was finding a strong material for the filament, the small wire inside the bulb that conducts electricity. Finally, Edison used ordinary cotton thread that had been soaked in carbon.

Another Edison invention was the Kinetoscope, a box containing a strip of photographs. When one looked into the box while the strip was moved, the objects in the photos appeared to be moving. He later invented the Edison Moving Picture Machine, an early cinema projector.

Edison also designed a direct-current system that was most efficient for densely populated urban centers and for isolated plants providing power to a single building. His system was most efficient and economical within a square mile of the central station.

Thomas Edison established the first investor-owned electric utility in 1882, basing its infrastructure on DC power. Edison’s Pearl Street Power Station started up its generator on September 4, 1882, in New York City. About 85 customers in lower Manhattan received enough power to light 5,000 lamps. In 1883, electricity goes public Edison moved across the east, helping cities to install electricity for the people.
Electric power by Edison

First American patent for a sewing machine

Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the quantum of manual sewing done in garment industries.

The first practical and widely used sewing machine was patented in France by Barthélemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, on July 17, 1830. The machine is made of wood and uses a barbed needle which passes downward through the cloth to grab the thread and pull it up to form a loop to be locked by the next loop.

On February 21, 1842 the first American patent was issued, to John Greenough, for an invention actually called a ‘sewing machine’. The model used a needle with two points and an eye in the middle. To make a stitch, the needle would completely pass through the material by means of a pair of pinchers on either side of the seam. The pinchers traveled on a rack and opened and closed automatically.

Greenough worked at the Patent Office from 1837 to 1841, supervising draftsmen who were restoring the patent drawings lost in the disastrous 1836 fire. Later he became an attorney working mostly on patent cases, and established a patent agency in New York City.

In 1873 Isaac M. Singer established his sewing machine factory on Newark bay. The factory was built on a 32-acre plot and once had a workforce of six thousand. In 1889, the machines run by electricity were designed with motors fixed in them.
First American patent for a sewing machine

The creation of Coca-Cola

Like many people who change history, Dr. John Stith Pemberton, a Civil War veteran and Atlanta pharmacist, was inspired by simple curiosity. He loved tinkering with medicinal formulas.

It was in the late1870’s that he apparently read about coca-leaves—a miracle substance that acted as a stimulant, an aid to digestion, an aphrodisiac, and a life-extender.After experimenting with coca-leaves, Pemberton developed French Wine Coca, which was an imitation of Vin Mariani, a now-forgotten drink that was a combination of Bordeaux wine and cocaine. Later Pemberton decided to eliminate the wine from the formula.

In one afternoon, searching for a quick cure for headaches, he stirred up a fragrant, caramel-colored liquid in a three-legged pot. When it was done, he carried it a few doors down to Jacobs’ Pharmacy.

On May 8 1886, Coca‑Cola is created by John Pemberton and served at Jacobs’ Pharmacy. He tried to create a distinctive syrup which can be sold at soda fountains. Initially, the syrup was mixed with carbonated water and then consumed.

Dr Pemberton tried it out on customers at his local chemist, Jacobs' Pharmacy, where it proved so popular it immediately went on sale at five cents a glass. Nine drinks a day are sold during this year.

Company accountant, Frank Robinson, names the drink “Coca‑Cola,” and thinking the two Cs would look well in advertising. He also designed the distinctive script in which the trademark is created, which is still used today.

In 1887, coupons are first used to promote Coca‑Cola. In the same yearJohn Pemberton registers his “Coca‑Cola Syrup and Extract” label as a copyright with the U.S. Patent Office. Prior to Dr. Pemberton‟s death in 1888, Coca Cola was sold to various partieswith the majority of interest sold to Atlanta businessman, Asa G. Chandler.

Mr. Chandler is credited with founding the layout of the Coca Cola‟s empire. Under his leadership, Coca Cola was sold in soda fountains outside Atlanta. In 1894, Joseph Biedenharn installed bottling machinery and became the first one to put Coca Cola in bottles.

The creation of Coca-Cola

The invention of condensed soup

Joseph Campbell joined Abraham Anderson as a partner in a tomato canning and preserving firm established in Camden in 1869.

Nearly 20 years later in 1897, Dr. John T. Dorrance (1973-1930), a chemist who was the 24 year old nephew of general manager Arthur Dorrance, joined the company. He agreed to pay for laboratory equipment out his own pocket and accept a salary of $7.50 per week.

He interested in French cuisine, and invented condensed soup, a process that eliminated the water in canned soup. He created five varieties, including tomato, which remains one of the top 10 shelf-stable foods sold in U.S. grocery stores today. His strongly flavored, simple soups blended “English thoroughness and French art,” in the words of Fannie Farmer.

The process lowered the cost for packaging, shipping, and storage, enabling the distinctive red-and white cans of soup to become a staple in most American households when it had previously been a delicacy for the wealthy.

The condensed soups were successful and Dorrance expanded his work, conducting experiments to determine how best to maintain uniformity of flavor and how to reduce waste caused by can spoilage.

The company soon developed twenty-one soups and was selling more than 16 million cans of condensed soup by 1904.
The invention of condensed soup